Practitioner's Guidance - Child Sexual Exploitation

This guidance is designed to complement, not replace, existing guidance within services and agencies.

Introduction

Child Sexual Exploitation (CSE) is a form of abuse perpetrated by older young people and adults against children and young people under the age of 18.

Children and young people who are being subjected to this kind of abuse may also be being criminally exploited. Please see our guidance on Child Criminal Exploitation for further information.

Both CCE and CSE must be seen in the wider context of public protection and harm to our communities: there are links to human trafficking and harm to vulnerable adults through the activities of organising groups and gangs.

The sections below cover the key issues that practitioners should be aware of when they are working with children and young people and there is a suspicion that they may be being exploited. Very often, this may begin with concerns about a child or young person's presenting behaviour - they may be going missing, getting involved in offending behaviour or getting caught up with an older peer group. This is where it is important to look past the presenting behaviour, use professional curiosity and our professional networks to consider what might be happening to the child or young person and how we can work together to keep them as safe as possible.
 

Child Sexual Exploitation

Increasingly, the term Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation, shortened to CSAE, is being used to cover the different types of sexual abuse and exploitation of children. It is clear that all sexual abuse is, by its definition, exploitative of children and young people.

However, CSE is a specific type of child sexual abuse with distinctive characteristics. CSE may be perpetrated by an individual or an organised group or network of individuals. When the abuse is perpetrated by an organised group or network, this can be described as Group-based Child Sexual Exploitation. In accordance with the National Guidance for Child Protection in Scotland 2021 - updated 2023, the term 'child' means a child or young person under 18 years of age.

Paragraph 1.40 of the National Guidance defines CSE as:

"...a form of child sexual abuse. It occurs where an individual or group takes advantage of an imbalance of power to coerce, manipulate or deceive a person under 18 into sexual activity in exchange for something the victim needs or wants, and/or for the financial advantage or increased status of the perpetrator or facilitator. The victim may have been sexually exploited even if the sexual activity appears consensual. Child sexual exploitation does not always involve physical contact. It can also occur through the use of technology. Children who are trafficked across borders or within the UK may be at particular risk of sexual abuse."

There are important aspects to this definition - firstly, that perceived consent on the part of the victim, even if the child or young person is adamant that sexual activity has been consensual, does not mean that the child or young person has not been or is not being sexually exploited. The second is that the 'something' the victim needs or wants may not be material - it may be as basic as their own safety or that of someone they care about. Children and young people may be enticed into being exploited initially but this can very quickly turn to being coerced through fear of violence, violence, blackmail or extortion.

In some CSE cases, there may be a single victim and single perpetrator. In other CSE cases, the victim or multiple victims may be exploited by two or more perpetrators at the same time or sequentially. As mentioned above, some CSE cases may be organised by criminal gangs or organised groups or networks of perpetrators.
 

What does CSE involve?

CSE is a complex issue and can affect any child or young person; male or female; anytime; anywhere - regardless of their social, economic or ethnic background. However, the National Audit on Group-based Child Sexual Exploitation and Abuse (Baroness Casey, 2025), found that the victims of group-based CSE in England and Wales were mainly girls aged between 10 and 15 years old,  with additional vulnerabilities such as being looked after away from home, having been abused previously or having learning or physical disabilities. The data collection on the victims and perpetrators of CSE has been identified as an area for development nationally and this should help promote a better understanding of the key issues over time.

1. Grooming, Persuasion, Coercion and Control

Like all child sexual abuse, CSE is hidden and it can be difficult for parents, carers and practitioners to identify what may be happening. Perpetrators use a range of different approaches to ensure silence from their victims, including violence, coercion, intimidation and/or softer approaches of persuasion, making the child or young person believe that they are special, that the perpetrator loves or is in love with them or through the giving of gifts or money. The acceptance of gifts or money can then be used against the child or young person to say they accepted 'payment.'
 

2. Involvement in sexual activity

CSE involves forcing, pressuring or inducing a child or young person to engage in sexual activity. This can range from online abuse, through images or webcams, to subjecting them to or making them perform sexual acts through to rape by an individual or group of individuals. The child or young person may be 'given' to others to abuse for payment or other reasons. Children and young people may be impregnated, forced to have terminations and may contract sexually transmitted infections.
 

3. Movement or trafficking of children and young people

Victims may be moved around within or outwith their local area to be sexually abused by others in a range of locations such as private homes, establishments, hotels or 'cuckooed' homes (these are homes that have been taken over from vulnerable adults by members of organised crime groups).
 

4. Use of technology and communication

CSE is increasingly facilitated through digital means:

• Social media platforms used for grooming, recruitment, threats, or coordination.
• Mobile phones, usually burner phones, which are used to give instructions, monitor children and young people's movements and/or direct activity.
• Digital surveillance or monitoring by exploiters to maintain control.

5. The use of older children and young people in the exploitation of others

Another aspect of CSE can be the use of older children and young people in the exploitation of others. They can sometimes be coerced or persuaded by the individual or group that is exploiting them to bring in new children and young people to be sexually exploited. Mirroring the strategies of the individual or group, the child or young person may do this through persuasion, coercion or the giving of 'rewards.'  These children and young people can be viewed as 'ringleaders' but it is important to remember that they are subject to intimidation, persuasion and coercive control themselves and are recruiting other children and young people to please or appease the individual or group who are exploiting them. There may be rewards of status and gifts or it may be simply to avoid coming to further harm themselves.

Identification of victims

People who sexually exploit children and young people will usually have carefully selected them through identifying that they may have little family or community support, that they may have limited choices within their lives and that they may be socially, situationally, psychologically, physically or economically vulnerable. It is important that CSE is considered in the wider context of vulnerability and risk.

 CSE may be technology-enabled with children and young people being persuaded to post or share sexual images of themselves on the internet/mobile phones. The child or young person may not realise they have been exploited and may think they have shared a 'consensual' image with an online boyfriend or girlfriend. These images may then be used to extort the child or young person to make more explicit images or to force them to meet the perpetrator in real life to be further sexually exploited.

CSE is an abuse of power over a child or young person by the perpetrator or perpetrators. This power can derive from the perpetrator's age, sex, intellect, physical strength, money or resources. Perpetrators gain from exploiting children and young people through sexual gratification, financial benefit, status and/or control. Financial benefit can be made through selling images of the victim, forcing or enticing the victim to have sex with or commit sexual acts upon others for payment or to settle their 'debts' which may be real or fabricated (see 'debt bondage'). Children and young people who are exploited in this way have been victims of commercial sexual exploitation. They must never be referred to as 'prostitutes' or referred to as 'prostituting themselves' as these are degrading and dehumanising terms.

Why don't victims tell?

As with all victims of CSAE, it is rare for victims to disclose the abuse they are being or have been subjected to by the perpetrator(s). There are a number of reasons for this:

• Shame: Children and young people will often feel deep shame regarding the abuse that they have been made to endure. When a child, young person or adult feels shame about something that has happened, telling someone else about it becomes very difficult for them. Perpetrators will often make children and young people feel that the abuse is their own fault - whether that is about their behaviour or what they might have been wearing, or drinking alcohol etc.
• Fear: Perpetrators are adept at instilling fear in children and young people to protect their secrets. This may be through threats of harm to the child or young person or to someone that they love such as a family member or even a beloved pet. It may be through saying that they will publish sexual images of the child or young person. It may be through threatening self-harm. There are a range of approaches that perpetrators will use. Children and young people may also be simply terrified of the abuse becoming known because they fear they will be blamed by family and friends, especially if the perpetrator has created tension or distance in the family relationships.
• Lack of recognition of abuse: Children and young people may not realise that they are being abused at the time it is happening to them. Where a perpetrator has adopted a guise of being the child or young person's 'boyfriend' as in the 'Boyfriend' model of exploitation, (as described here), the child or young person may believe that they are in a consensual and loving relationship. Children and young people who have not benefited from witnessing what a real loving and consensual relationship looks like may believe that what they are being subjected to is normal. It may be months or years later that a victim is able to recognise what has happened to them was abusive.
• The presence of an 'exchange element': This can be an additional barrier to disclosure. If the child or young person has accepted money or gifts in exchange for sexual activity, they may believe that this does not constitute abuse and that their acceptance of the gift/money means that they cannot complain. Children and young people must always be reassured that it does not matter what they have been given or gifted and whether they 'consented' - exploitation is exploitation.

Are there indicators or characteristics which may heighten the risk of a child or young person being victimised through CSE?

In all of our lives, from childhood through to adult and older age, there will be times when we may be more vulnerable to being victimised than others. This will be due to static factors, such as health, mental health, learning disabilities or difficulties as well as situational factors such as such as relationship breakdown, loss of employment or facing homelessness. People who seek to exploit others can be adept at recognising when a child, young person or adult may be more vulnerable. It is important to remember that, irrespective of any vulnerability factors a child, young person or adult may have, that they are never to blame for their abuse. People who make a choice to harm or exploit others bear the responsibility for their actions.

Practitioners working with children and young people should be aware, nonetheless, that research has shown that there are factors which may heighten the risks for children and young people being victimised through CSE:

• The child or young person has been abused (including familial sexual abuse, physical abuse and emotional abuse).
• The child or young person has been neglected - this may be emotional and/or physical neglect.
• Children and young people who are looked after or have been looked after previously. This is where the child or young person has been unable to safely live with their parents for a period of time, whether for period of weeks, months or years and has been in foster, kinship or residential care. Children and young people who have remained in the care of their parents but who are or who have been subject to a legal order through the Children's Hearing to ensure their care and protection are also considered to be or to have been looked after.
• It is important to be aware that children and young people who are living in residential establishments are at a documented increased risk of CSE although the majority of children and young people who are abused in this way remain in the care of their families.
• Difficulties in family life such as parental separation, divorce and/or domestic abuse.
• Parenting which has not been able to meet the child's needs.
• Children and young people whose parents or carers use alcohol and/or substances problematically.
• Children and young people whose parents or carers have mental health problems and/or learning disabilities.
• Children and young people who have difficulties in their education such as non-attendance or feel disengaged from learning. This can isolate children and young people from important support mechanisms.
• Children and young people who go missing from home or care environments even for a few hours on a regular or frequent basis. This means that their whereabouts are not known by the adult responsible for their care and protection.
• Children and young people whose families are struggling with homelessness; living in hostel, bed and breakfast or homeless accommodation (especially longer term).
• Children and young people whose health and emotional wellbeing may be poor. These children and young people may be socially excluded and social isolated.
• Children and young people who have low self-esteem and low self-confidence and have a poor self-image and/or eating disorders.
• Children and young people who have experienced a recent bereavement or other significant loss.
• Children and young people living in poverty; financial hardship and insecurity and/or whose parents or carers may be; unemployed.
• Children and young people with a disability - particularly autistic spectrum disorder or a learning disability.
• Children and young people who are being bullied in and/or out of school.
• Children and young people who have become involved in offending behaviour.
• All children and young people can be vulnerable online but there may be increased indicators of vulnerability with a lack of recognition of risk in the online world and how it may present.
• The child or young person may be unsure of their sexual orientation or may feel unable to disclose their sexual orientation to their family and friends. This can increase feelings of isolation and lead children and young people to spend more time online to seek support.
• Children and young people who are at risk of forced marriage/so called 'honour based' violence / female genital mutilation.
• Children and young people who are connected to/ with other young people who are being sexually exploited.

A note of caution: the presence of these factors does not mean that CSE is happening and equally, the absence of these factors does not mean that it is not happening. As with any other situation, be professionally curious, ask questions, make observations and speak to the child or young person directly to assess what may be happening to them.
 

What are the possible indicators of CSE?

There are a number of signs, symptoms and indicators which may alert you that a child or young person is at risk of CSE:

• Staying out later than their agreed return time or regular episodes of being missing for a few hours, overnight or longer without permission. Their whereabouts during these times are not known or are suspected to be of concern.
• The child or young person has reduced their contact with family and friends and/or other support networks.
• Multiple callers to home for the child or young person (unknown adults/older young people).
• There is evidence of/suspicion that the child or young person has been subjected to a physical or sexual assault. A child or young person discloses an assault but subsequently withdraws the allegation.
• The child or young person becomes pregnant; has a termination or terminations, there is evidence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs). It appears that multiple people are having sexual contact with the child or young person.
• It is known that the child or young person has peers/friend who have been or are being sexually exploited.
• The child or young person is having attendance difficulties at school or college, including exclusion, truancy or unexplained absences.
• There are concerns that an older young person, adult or adults are behaving in a controlling way towards the child or young person. This may be in the context of a of what is perceived to be a 'relationship.'
• The child or young person is seen getting in and/or out of vehicles driven by unknown adults or taxis or Uber/other private hire cars.
• The child or young person has been seen frequenting areas which are known locally as those in which on/off street sexual exploitation takes place (where people are exploited through prostitution).
• Children under 13 years seeking sexual health advice - such as for contraception, sexual health care, terminations.
• The child or young person's use of the internet/mobile phone is causing concern - this may include the timing of usage, the number of contacts with others who are unknown to the family as examples.
• The child or young person has money, new clothes, trainers, new mobile phone or similar items without plausible explanation of where they have come from.
• It is observed that the child or young has been receiving lots of texts/phone calls prior to going out/going missing.
• The child or young person is seen to be agitated, stressed or distressed prior to leaving the home or care setting.
• When the child or young person returns, they are distraught, dishevelled and/or under the influence of alcohol/substances.
• The child or young person requests emergency contraception such as the 'morning after' pill upon their return from an unexplained absence.
• The child or young person is displaying Inappropriate sexualised behaviour for their age and developmental stage.
• There are physical signs of harm to the child or young person on their return such as bruising or bite marks.
• The child or young person has a new peer group.
• The child or young person has a significantly older 'boyfriend' or 'girlfriend.'
• The child or young person has become increasingly secretive around their behaviours and what they are doing.
• There has been a change in the child or young person's personal hygiene habits - this may be greater attention or less attention to being clean and well presented.
• The child or young person is dressing in overtly sexualised clothes.
• The child or young person is self- harming or showing other expressions of despair.
• There is evidence or suspicion that the child or young person is using alcohol or substances frequently/ problematically and that this is outwith normal developmental exploration.
• The child or young person is a member of a gang.

How can we 'get it right' when we suspect CSE?

Here are some key messages that can help practitioners work effectively with children and young people who may be being sexually exploited:

Key Message 1 - Children and young people cannot consent to being exploited

Practitioners have sometimes overlooked signs of CSE or CCE because of two common misconceptions: the presence of an 'exchange' (where the child or young person receives something in return) or the child or young person's claim that their involvement in the criminal or sexual activity was consensual. Both are misleading.

Any situation in which an older young person or adult uses their power over a child or young person — whether through coercion, manipulation, violence, or enticement — to satisfy their own needs is exploitation, regardless of perceived consent or 'benefits' to the child or young person.

Practitioners must therefore look beyond the obvious presenting behaviours and be aware of, and vigilant to, the indicators that a child or young person is being exploited.
 

Key Message 2 - Do not expect the child or young person to disclose what is happening to them

As discussed above, there are many reasons that affect children and young people being able to tell others about what is happening to them - fear, shame or a lack of recognition that they are being exploited, to name only a few factors. They may believe their situation is hopeless and there is no way out - they may not be able to see any way in which they can be kept safe from the individual or group who is harming them. Therefore, the majority of CCE and CSE concerns are reported by friends, family members and practitioners or through pro-active investigations rather than the child or young person making a disclosure themselves.

Over time, through building a trusting relationship with the child or young person and creating a safe space, they may be able to begin to share parts of their story with you. It is important to go at the child or young person's pace at all times. It takes extraordinary courage for a child or young person to speak about what has been happening to them and it is common to have one step forward and two steps back.
 

Key Message 3 - Be child-focused, non-judgmental and compassionate in your response

Children and young people who are being exploited need practitioners who keep their best interests central and recognise that, irrespective of any concerns about their behaviour, they are children and young people first and foremost. They need care, support and compassion. Practitioners must treat children and young people with respect and sensitivity, avoiding language or phrases that are judgmental or victim blame. Children and young people who are or have been subjected to this kind of abuse are likely to carry deep shame - they need skilled, empathetic support to make sense of their experiences and cope with their trauma. This may be particularly relevant for young people who have been used to bring other children and young people into the criminal activities or to be sexually exploited by others. Some victims were previously criminalised as offenders themselves without the recognition or understanding that they were being coercively controlled at that time and that recruiting other victims was part of their own exploitation.
 

Key Message 4 - Good information sharing and working together effectively is vital

No single agency can, or should, address the challenge of preventing and responding to CSE in isolation - a multi-agency approach is essential. Making sure that communication is strong and that information is shared effectively is one of the main ways we can work to keep children and young people safe. If you suspect that a child or young person may be being exploited, you must take that concern forward with your multi-agency colleagues.

Please do not assume that someone else will be dealing with this issue - you may be the child or young person's only or best chance to get the help they need.
 

What to do about Child Sexual Exploitation

If you are worried or concerned that a child or young person may be at risk or Child Sexual Exploitation you should ask yourself the following questions.

ASK

• What have I seen?
• What have I heard?
• What do I feel is unusual or different?
• What has actually happened?
• What is my concern?
• What is this telling me?
• What should I do now?

ACT

• Keep your focus on the child or young person - their safety is paramount!
• Doing nothing is not an option!
• Do not assume someone else will do something!
• Do not delay unnecessarily - act quickly!
• Look, Listen and Record your Concern!
• Look further and see beyond.
• If you are a practitioner - Follow your agency child protection procedures
• If you are a practitioner - Tell your Line Manager or Child Protection Officer immediately!
• If you are a member of the public:
  • Contact the Child Protection Duty Team (24 hours) on 01738 476768
  • In an Emergency - Dial 999
  • Police (Non-Emergency) - Dial 101
  • ChildLine - Dial 0800 1111
  • Crimestoppers - Dial 0808 555 111

Glossary of Terms