Practitioner's Guidance - Child Criminal Exploitation

This guidance is designed to complement, not replace, existing guidance within services and agencies.

Introduction

Child Criminal Exploitation (CCE) is a form of abuse perpetrated by older young people and adults against children and young people under the age of 18. Children and young people who are being subjected to this kind of abuse may also be being criminally exploited.  Please also see our practitioner's guidance regarding Child Sexual Exploitation for further information.

Both CCE and CSE must be seen in the wider context of public protection and harm to our communities. There are links to both human trafficking and harm to vulnerable adults through the activities of organised crime groups or gangs.

The sections below cover the key issues that practitioners should be aware of when they are working with children and young people and there is a suspicion that they may be being exploited. Very often, this may begin with concerns about a child or young person's presenting behaviour - they may be going missing, getting involved in offending behaviour or getting caught up with an older peer group. This is where it is important to look past the presenting behaviour, use professional curiosity and our professional networks to consider what might be happening to the child or young person and how we can work together to keep them as safe as possible.
 

What is Child Criminal Exploitation (CCE)?

CCE is a form of child abuse in which individuals or organised groups exploit an imbalance of power between themselves and the child or young person under the age of 18 to coerce, control, manipulate, or deceive them into criminal activity, typically for the financial or other gain of the perpetrator/organised crime group.

Paragraph 1.41 of the National Guidance for Child Protection Scotland 2021, updated 2023  provides more detail to this definition:

"Criminal exploitation refers to the action of an individual or group using an imbalance of power to coerce, control, manipulate or deceive a child or young person under the age of 18 into any criminal activity in exchange for something the victim needs or wants, or for the financial or other advantage of the perpetrator or facilitator. Violence or the threat of violence may feature. The victim may have been criminally exploited, even if the activity appears consensual. Child criminal exploitation may involve physical contact and may also occur through the use of technology. It may involve gangs and organised criminal networks. Sale of illegal drugs may be a feature. Children and vulnerable adults may be exploited to move and store drugs and money. Coercion, intimidation, violence (including sexual violence) and weapons may be involved."

As underlined above, although it may appear that the child or young person has agreed to the activity in which they have become involved or participated, this does not mean that they have not been criminally exploited. Simply put, children and young people cannot consent to being exploited.

CCE occurs because individuals or organised crime groups:

• Use children and young people to support their financial gain and to distance themselves from the risk of direct criminality and its consequences; and
• Use children and young people to reduce the visibility of their criminal activities to police. They may target children and young people who may draw less suspicion.

What does CCE involve?

CCE may involve direct contact with the individual or organised group or may be facilitated entirely through technology and social media. Several consistent features and mechanisms are commonly recognised in CCE:

Use of coercion, control, manipulation or deception

• Children and young people may be groomed through the perpetrator(s) building their trust, giving them gifts or money, affording them status or bringing the child or young person under their protection.
• Children and young people may be coerced through the perpetrator(s) through threats, intimidation, violence or psychological pressure.
• Children and young people may become caught up in debt bondage. This is where real or fabricated debts are used to ensnare children and young people and they are required to pay off the debt through doing things as directed by the perpetrator(s).

Children and young people can believe that they are choosing to participate in criminal activity but in reality, they are being coercively controlled through one or a combination of the above strategies.
 

Involvement in criminal acts

CCE frequently involves forcing or pressuring a child or young person to:

• Be involved in the transportation, storage or supply of drugs. This can be referred to as 'County Lines' networks in which organised crime groups use children and young people for these activities to move drugs, money and weapons from one area to another.
• Carry, store and/or use weapons as part of the criminal activity.
• Handle money, deliver packages, be involved in communications linked to criminal activities.
• The activities above may include coerced internal concealment of items, in which items are stored within the child or young person's own body. This can be extremely dangerous for them.
• Use violence and/or take part in robberies or other offences. This is sometimes to enforce the gang rules or settle drug debts.

Again, the child or young person may appear to be voluntarily undertaking these activities, but it is still exploitation because of the coercive environment and strategies used to compel the child or young person to perform these acts for the benefit of others.
 

Movement or trafficking of children and young people

CCE often involves moving or trafficking children and young people either within or outside their local area:

• Sending children and young people out of town and/or to rural/coastal areas to deliver drugs.
• Moving children and young people between properties used by gangs, including hotel rooms, short‑term rentals, or 'cuckooed' homes (these are homes that have been taken over from vulnerable adults by members of organised crime groups).

Use of technology and communication

CCE is increasingly facilitated through digital means:

• Social media platforms used for grooming, recruitment, threats, or coordination.
• Mobile phones, usually burner phones, which are used to give instructions, monitor children and young people's movements and/or direct criminal activity.
• Digital surveillance or monitoring by exploiters to maintain control.

Use of older children and young people in exploitation of others

Within CCE, older children and young people will sometimes be coerced or persuaded by the individual or group that is exploiting them to bring in new children and young people into the criminal activities. Mirroring the strategies of the individual or group, the child or young person may do this through persuasion, coercion or the giving of 'rewards.'  These children and young people can be viewed as 'ringleaders' but it is important to remember that they are subject to intimidation, persuasion and coercive control themselves and are recruiting other children and young people to please or appease the individual or group who are exploiting them. There may be rewards of status and gifts or it may be simply to avoid coming to further harm themselves.
 

What is the impact of CCE?

CCE exposes children and young people to:

• Physical violence, sexual violence, and threats against them or their families from the perpetrator(s): they may also face these threats from members of rival gangs due to their involvement in crime.
• Serious physical, emotional and psychological trauma: as well as being a victim of violence and coercion, the act of committing violence in itself can create trauma for children and young people who are forced to participate. There can be lifelong mental health issues leading to self-medication through substance use, self-harm and/or suicidal ideation.
• Those children and young people who were involved in 'recruiting' other members to the group may face justice consequences, have criminal convictions and have feelings of deep shame as adults, when they may have the maturity to understand the harm that they had been compelled to participate in. This can impact significantly on their ability to live well, through affecting employment opportunities and their ability to be engaged with family life.
• Increased risk of going missing, becoming isolated from friends and family and disengagement from education.
• Criminalisation: if safeguarding responses fail, children and young people can end up accruing charges and convictions.

All of these factors will have a significant impact on children and young people's future chances and life opportunities, create lifelong harm and exclusion from meaningful engagement in their communities. 
 

CCE as a hidden problem

Children and young people who are being exploited can be hidden from view, appearing in systems and statistics as young people involved in offending behaviour rather than the victims of CCE.

Children and young people who are being exploited in this way can have complex presentations which leads to practitioners misunderstanding what may be happening to them. They may go missing, present with aggression to practitioners and/or be using substances problematically. It can be difficult to identify these children and young people as the victims there are unless practitioners exercise professional curiosity and make sure that they are both sharing and seeking information about the child or young person on a multi-agency basis.

Victims of CCE may not be able to recognise themselves as being exploited because of the strategies used to entrap them in the first place. They may have been groomed, given 'rewards,' intimidated, they may be afraid, they may be dependent on substances controlled by the individual or gang. All or any of these factors make disclosing very difficult, particularly if they have become alienated from family members or former friends.
 

Why don't victims tell?

It is rare for victims to disclose the abuse they are being or have been subjected to by the perpetrator(s). There are a number of reasons for this:

• Shame: Children and young people may feel deep shame regarding what they have been subjected to and/or about the criminal activities they have become involved in themselves When a child, young person or adult feels shame about something that has happened, telling someone else about it becomes very difficult for them. Perpetrators will often make children and young people feel that they have made choices to behave in certain ways, pointing out how it has 'benefited' the child or young person themselves, for example.
• Fear: Perpetrators are adept at instilling fear in children and young people to protect their secrets. This may be through threats of harm to the child or young person or to someone that they love such as a family member or even a beloved pet. It may be through threatening them with justice consequences of their actions - such as going to prison or implicating them in wider criminal enterprises.
• Lack of recognition of abuse: Children and young people may not realise that they are being exploited at the time it is happening. They are not likely to have the maturity to recognise that any 'rewards' received are in no way commensurate to the risk of harm they have been placed at through their involvement in these activities.
• The presence of an 'exchange element': This can be an additional barrier to disclosure. If the child or young person has accepted money or gifts in exchange for undertaking criminal activities, they may believe that they are just as complicit as the adults in the organised crime group. Children and young people must always be reassured that it does not matter what they have been given or gifted - exploitation is exploitation.

Are there indicators or characteristics which may heighten the risk of a child or young person being victimised through CCE?

In all of our lives, from childhood through to adult and older age, there will be times when we may be more vulnerable to being victimised than others. This will be due to static factors, such as health, mental health, learning disabilities or difficulties as well as situational factors such as such as relationship breakdown, loss of employment or facing homelessness. People who seek to exploit others can be adept at recognising when a child, young person or adult may be more vulnerable. It is important to remember that, irrespective of any vulnerability factors a child, young person or adult may have, that they are never to blame for their abuse. People who make a choice to harm or exploit others bear the responsibility for their actions.

Research shows that children and young people may be at higher risk of being exploited if the following factors are or have been present:

• Living in poverty
• Neglect - both physical and emotional.
• Physical abuse
• Emotional abuse
• Sexual abuse
• Family dysfunction, parental separation or divorce
• Significant bereavement
• Mental health issues such as anxiety or depression.
• Learning difficulties or disabilities
• Unmet emotional or attachment needs - the absence of a secure, consistent attachment relationship, for example.

What might be seen in a child or young person's behaviours who is at risk of, or already being subjected to CCE?

There are a number of signs, symptoms and indicators which may alert you that a child or young person is at risk of CCE:

• Staying out later than their agreed return time or regular episodes of being missing for a few hours, overnight or longer without permission. Their whereabouts during these times are not known or are suspected to be of concern.
• Sudden long-distance travel - going to places where they apparently have no connections, for example.
• Possession of multiple mobile phones and cash.
• The child or young person has reduced their contact with family and friends and/or other support networks.
• It is known that the child or young person has peers/friend who have been or are being exploited in this way.
• The child or young person is having attendance difficulties at school or college, including exclusion, truancy or unexplained absences.
• The child or young person's use of the internet/mobile phone is causing concern - this may include the timing of usage, the number of contacts with others who are unknown to the family as examples.
• The child or young person has money, new clothes, trainers, new mobile phone or similar items without plausible explanation of where they have come from.
• The child or young person is seen to be agitated, stressed or distressed prior to leaving the home or care setting.
• When the child or young person returns, they are distraught, dishevelled and/or under the influence of alcohol/substances.
• The child or young person has a new peer group.
• The child or young person has become increasingly secretive around their behaviours and what they are doing. They may respond aggressively when asked about what is happening.
• There is evidence or suspicion that the child or young person is using alcohol or substances frequently/ problematically and that this is outwith normal developmental exploration.
• The child or young person is a member of a gang.
• Associations with older peers or controlling adults.

A note of caution: the presence of these factors does not mean that CCE is happening and equally, the absence of these factors does not mean that it is not happening. As with any other situation, be professionally curious, ask questions, make observations and speak to the child or young person directly to assess what may be happening.

How can we 'get it right' when we suspect CCE?

Here are some key messages that can help practitioners work effectively with children and young people who may be being criminally exploited:

Key Message 1 - Children and young people cannot consent to being exploited

Practitioners have sometimes overlooked signs of CCE because of two common misconceptions: the presence of an 'exchange' (where the child or young person receives something in return) or the child or young person's claim that their involvement in the criminal activity was consensual. Both are misleading. Any situation in which an older young person or adult uses their power over a child or young person — whether through coercion, manipulation, violence, or enticement—to satisfy their own needs is exploitation, regardless of perceived consent or 'benefits' to the child or young person.

Practitioners must therefore look beyond the obvious presenting behaviours and be aware of, and vigilant to, the indicators that a child or young person is being exploited.
 

Key Message 2 - Do not expect the child or young person to disclose what is happening to them

As discussed above, there are many reasons that affect children and young people being able to tell others about what is happening to them - fear, shame or a lack of recognition that they are being exploited, to name only a few factors. They may believe their situation is hopeless and there is no way out - they may not be able to see any way in which they can be kept safe from the individual or group who is harming them. Therefore, the majority of CCE concerns are reported by friends, family members and practitioners or through pro-active investigations rather than the child or young person making a disclosure themselves.

Over time, through building a trusting relationship with the child or young person and creating a safe space, they may be able to begin to share parts of their story with you. It is important to go at the child or young person's pace at all times. It takes extraordinary courage for a child or young person to speak about what has been happening to them and it is common to have one step forward and two steps back.
 

Key Message 3 - Be child-focused, non-judgmental and compassionate in your response

Children and young people who are being exploited need practitioners who keep their best interests central and recognise that, irrespective of any concerns about their behaviour, they are children and young people first and foremost. They need care, support and compassion. Practitioners must treat children and young people with respect and sensitivity, avoiding language or phrases that are judgmental or victim blame. Children and young people who are or have been subjected to this kind of abuse are likely to carry deep shame - they need skilled, empathetic support to make sense of their experiences and cope with their trauma. This may be particularly relevant for young people who have been used to bring other children and young people into the criminal activities or to be sexually exploited by others. Some victims were previously criminalised as offenders themselves without the recognition or understanding that they were being coercively controlled at that time and that recruiting other victims was part of their own exploitation.
 

Key Message 4 - Good information-sharing and working together effectively is vital

No single agency can, or should, address the challenge of preventing and responding to CSE in isolation - a multi-agency approach is essential. Making sure that communication is strong and that information is shared effectively is one of the main ways we can work to keep children and young people safe. If you suspect that a child or young person may be being exploited, you must take that concern forward with your multi-agency colleagues. Please do not assume that someone else will be dealing with this issue - you may be the child or young person's only or best chance to get the help they need.
 

What to do about CCE

If you are worried or concerned that a child or young person may be at risk of Child Criminal Exploitation, you should ask yourself the following questions:

ASK

• What have I seen?
• What have I heard?
• What do I feel is unusual or different?
• What has actually happened?
• What is my concern?
• What is this telling me?
• What should I do now?

ACT

• Keep your focus on the child or young person - their safety is paramount!
• Doing nothing is not an option!
• Do not assume someone else will do something!
• Do not delay unnecessarily - act quickly!
• Look, Listen and Record your Concern!
• Look further and see beyond.
• If you are a practitioner - Follow your agency child protection procedures
• If you are a practitioner - Tell your Line Manager or Child Protection Officer immediately!
• If you are a member of the public:
  • Contact the Child Protection Duty Team (24 hours) on 01738 476768
  • In an Emergency - Dial 999
  • Police (Non-Emergency) - Dial 101
  • ChildLine - Dial 0800 1111
  • Crimestoppers - Dial 0808 555 111

Glossary of Terms